Air pollution presents a particularly insidious hazard given that the disease affects respiratory and cardio-vascular systems (source). These two systems are sensitive to air pollution as air pollution directly damages the mechanics and as a consequence the function of lungs, heart, and the circulatory system.

Pollutants directly damage our lungs and other organs, cause systemic inflammation (which can reduce the immune response), and initiate a stress response which, if chronic, can lead to subsequent damage to our bodies. Acute and chronic exposure to air pollution, therefore, weakens our whole system and depletes our body of resources that are essential to combat additional stressors, such as SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes Covid-19.

The dangerous and important fact about fine particulate matter is that there is technically no safe amount that a person should be exposed to regularly (source).

HOW AIR POLLUTION IS AN URBAN PLANNING PROBLEM

There are four main types of air pollution sources:

mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains

stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial facilities, and factories

area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood burning fireplaces

natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes

The first three are factors within control of urban planning and local government regulation. The frequency, proximity and density of these factors are contributors to air pollution.

The majority of urban air pollution comes from vehicle movement but also includes particulates from asphalt, tyres and brake pads, and building exhausts.

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1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7487338/

2. https://academic.oup.com/cardiovascres/article/116/2/279/5579822

3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012369218327235

4. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/air/sources.htm

Noise pollution is a pollutant that is manageable in moderation. People specifically experience the negative health outcomes of noise when it disrupts their sleep and ability to recover or focus. The research around noise pollution shows that noise can trigger both the endocrine and autonomic nervous system responses, with a sustained activation becoming a potential risk factor for cardiovascular disease and particularly coronary heart disease. The infrequent plane flying overhead will not be a likely contributor to this risk, but we find that high traffic and proximity to active train stations will.

The SRS uses the average annual decibels produced by road and rail as the metric of noise pollution. The range is based on a preliminary meta-analysis on the levels where research shows noticeable effects of exposure.

HOW NOISE POLLUTION IS AN URBAN PLANNING PROBLEM

Noise pollution, unwanted or excessive sound that can have deleterious effects on human health, wildlife, and environmental quality. Noise pollution is commonly generated inside many industrial facilities and some other workplaces, but it also comes from highway, railway, and airplane traffic and from outdoor construction activities.

Thermal pollution is going to be a factor of increased importance due to climate change as it encompasses everything from region down to the density of buildings and even further to the materiality of the environment. These range of factors are captured within the concept of the Urban Heat Island.

Heat stress is associated with elevated heart rates which can lead to heat stroke, cardiovascular issues, and a loss of sodium and potassium which is all of particular risk for those with weakened hearts, often the elderly. Urban heat islands generally have reduced air and water quality due to the industrialisation, transport, and density, so it is normal for heat pollution to rise with air pollution.

The SRS represents thermal pollution through the maximum values achieved in an extreme summer.

HOW THERMAL POLLUTION IS AN URBAN PLANNING PROBLEM

The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces. Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor. Urban Heat Island effect decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone, and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems.

Concrete and black asphalt in particular are two problematic materials as they retain heat. dark-coloured asphalt positively bakes when temperatures rise, absorbing 80% to 95% of the sun’s rays. On a sweltering summer day when the mercury reaches 100 degrees Fahrenheit, the surface temperature of L.A.’s roads can climb to as much as 50 degrees higher. The US city of Los Angeles has sought to paint roads white as a way to repel heat (3). Recommended further reading is ‘Dangerous Heat, Unequal Consequences’ (4)

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Sources

1. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/heat-is-hard-on-the-heart-simple-precautions-can-ease-the-strain-201107223180

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_heat_island

3. https://www.treehugger.com/how-los-angeles-beating-heat-white-painted-streets-4868629

4. https://publicintegrity.org/environment/hidden-epidemics/dangerous-heat-illness-unequal-consequences/

Light pollution refers to artificially produced light, particularly in urban environments at night. This phenomenon is often referred to as light at night (LAN) or artificial light at night (ALAN) and is particularly important to people such as shift-workers.

The light disrupts the circadian rhythms of humans and wildlife alike as well as lowering melatonin production, which results in sleep deprivation, fatigue, headaches, stress, anxiety, and other health problems. Furthermore, LAN has been associated with increased breast cancer incidents in shift-working women.

The SRS represents light pollution in radiance based on satellite annual averages. As with air pollution, the scale starts at zero because the desired amount is virtually none at night. Of course, in practice there are street lights and signs that serve a purpose but this is where individual exposure becomes an important determinant of the actual effect of LAN, as the studies on this subject make clear.

HOW LIGHT POLLUTION IS AN URBAN PLANNING PROBLEM TO REGULATE

As defined by Darksky.org; Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues.

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Sources

1. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/light-pollution/

2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18293150/